«ЗЕМЛЯ ГЛИНЯНИХ МЕЧЕТЕЙ» МАЛІ: ПРИЧИНИ І НАСЛІДКИ НЕСТАБІЛЬНОСТІ
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.17721/1728-2292.2023/1-57/68-74Ключові слова:
Малі, Франція, Сахель, Азавад, тероризм, економічний потенціал.Анотація
Малі – країна Сахелю зі значним економічним потенціалом, яка опинились в епіцентрі боротьби між сепаратистами і урядовими військами, кочовими племенами і землеробами, терористами і військами Франції та ООН, держав Заходу і Росії та Туреччини. Однак участь світової спільноти у врегулюванні цього конфлікту відзначається низькою результативністю, тому автор намагається з’ясувати, чому Малі не може стати стабільною країною.
Посилання
Lecocq B., Mann G., Whitehouse B., Badi D., Pelckmans L., Belalimat N., Hall B., and Lacher W. One Hippopotamus and Eight Blind Analysts: A Multivocal Analysis of the 2012 Political Crisis in the Divided Republic of Mali. Review of African Political Economy, Vol. 40., no. 137. 2013. P. 343-357.
Grigoriadis I. N., Fusiek D. A. Turkey’s “anti-colonial” pivot to Mali: French-Turkish competition and the role of the European Union in the Sahel. Eliamep. 21 January 2022. URL: https://www.eliamep.gr/en/publication/%CE%B7-%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B9-%CE%B1%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%AE-%CF%83%CF%84%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%AE-%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82-%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%81%CE%BA%CE%AF%CE%B1/.
Stewart, Dona J. What Is next for Mali? : The Roots of Conflict and Challenges to Stability. Carlisle, PA: Army War College (U.S.). Strategic Studies Institute, 2013.
Trade and investment.USAID. URL: https: https://idea.usaid.gov/cd/mali/trade-and-investment.
Bensassi S., Brockmeyer A., Pellerin M., Raballand G. Algeria–Mali Trade: The Normality of Informality. Democracy And Economic Development Economic Research Forum 21st Annual Conference, Gammarth, Tunisia. 20-22 March 2015. URL: https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/839641468186541299/pdf/101137-WP-P148610-PUBLIC-Box393259B.pdf.
West Africa has experienced a wave of coups - superficial democracy is to blame. The Conversation. 22 December 2022. URL: https://theconversation.com/west-africa-has-experienced-a-wave-of-coups-superficial-democracy-is-to-blame-195664.
OPEC: Libya in fourth place in Africa for daily production of crude oil in 2022. Nova Agency. 24 January 2023. URL: https://www.agenzianova.com/en/news/opec-libya-ranks-fourth-in-africa-for-daily-crude-oil-production-in-2022/.
Mali – World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples. URL: https://minorityrights.org/country/mali/.
Lecocq B. Disputed Desert: Decolonisation, Competing Nationalisms and Tuareg Rebellions in Northern Mali. Afrika-Studiecentrum Series. Brill. Vol. 19. 2010.
Mali – UNESCO World Heritage Convention. URL: https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/ml.
Mali’s Timbuktu and Askia Tomb put on UNESCO danger list. BBC News. 28 June 2012. URL: http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-18626033.
Attractions in Mali. The World Travel Guide. URL: https://www.worldtravelguide.net/guides/africa/mali/things-to-do/.
Le journaliste français Olivier Dubois libéré après presque deux ans de captivité au Mali. RFI. 20 mars 2023. URL: https://www.rfi.fr/fr/afrique/20230320-le-journaliste-fran%C3%A7ais-olivier-dubois-lib%C3%A9r%C3%A9-apr%C3%A8s-presque-deux-ans-de-captivit%C3%A9-au-mali.
Mali sentences two to death for 2015 terror attacks in Bamako. Africanews. 28 October 2020. URL: https://www.africanews.com/2020/10/28/mali-sentences-two-to-death-for-2015-terror-attacks-in-bamako//.
Mali Air. URL: https://www.maliair.com/.
Mali: Air France resumes its flights to Bamako. The Africa Report. 15 February 2022. URL: https://www.theafricareport.com/177361/mali-air-france-resumes-its-flights-to-bamako/.
Human Development Indicators: Mali. United Nations Development Pro-gramme – Human Development Reports. URL: http://hdr.undp.org/en/countries/profiles/MLI.
Electricity Utility Reform in Mali: Lessons from Operations. URL: https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/33169/Electricity-Utility-Reform-in-Mali-Lessons-from-Operations.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.
Analysis: Mali’s aid problem. ReliefWeb. 5 August 2013. URL: https://reliefweb.int/report/mali/analysis-mali%E2%80%99s-aid-problem.
Mali – DataBank. The World Bank. URL: https://databank.worldbank.org/source/jobs/Series/NV.AGR.TOTL.ZS.
Diarra S. As Mali fights coronavirus, cotton farmers fear loss of climate aid. Reuters. 16 June 2020. URL: https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-mali-climatechange-idUSKBN23N1SR.
A Look at Agricultural Development in Mali. The Borgen Project. 20 April 2020. URL: https://borgenproject.org/agricultural-development-in-mali/.
Holthuijzen W., Maximillian J. Dry, hot, and brutal: Climate change and desertification in the Sahel of Mali. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, Vol. 13, no.7. 2011. P. 245-68.
Mali’s Gold Miners Carry on Digging Despite Coup, Shares Hit. US News. 19 August 2020. URL: https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2020-08-19/mining-companies-in-mali-say-gold-production-continues-despite-crisis.
Mali gold exports rise 8.4% in 2022. Reuters. 10 March 2023. URL: https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/mali-gold-exports-rise-84-2022-2023-03-10/.
Mohanty A. Uranium in Niger: When a Blessing Becomes a Curse. Geopolitical Monitor. 19 April 2018. URL: https://www.geopoliticalmonitor.com/uranium-in-niger-when-a-blessing-becomes-a-curse/.
Mali – 2023 Index of Economic Freedom. The Heritage Foundation. URL: https://www.heritage.org/index/country/mali.
Country Data – Mali. Transparency International. URL: https://www.transparency.org/en/countries/mali.
President Modibo Keita of Mali is deposed by the army. South African History Online. URL: https://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/president-modibo-keita-mali-deposed-army.
Moussa Traoré, who ruled Mali for 22 years before being ousted in coup, dies at 83. The Washington Post. 17 September 2020. URL: https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/obituaries/moussa-traore-who-ruled-mali-for-22-years-before-being-ousted-in-coup-dies-at-83/2020/09/17/461475ea-f8fb-11ea-a275-1a2c2d36e1f1_story.html.
Passanante A., Rennebohm M. Malians defeat dictator, gain free election (March Revolution), 1991. Global Nonviolent Action Database. 2011. URL: https://nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu/content/malians-defeat-dictator-gain-free-election-march-revolution-1991.
Diallo T. Former Mali president Toure, democratic icon toppled in coup, dies at 72. Reuters. 10 November 2020. URL: https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mali-toure-idCAKBN27Q10X.
Mohanty A. Mali Crisis: A Historical Perspective of the Azawad Movement. Geopolitical Monitor. 13 February 2018. URL: https://www.geopoliticalmonitor.com/mali-crisis-a-historical-perspective-of-the-azawad-movement/.
Larémont, René. R. After the Fall of Qaddafi Political, Economic, and Security Consequences for Libya, Mali, Niger, and Algeria. Stability: International Journal of Security and Development, Vol. 2. 2013. p. Art, 29.
Mali’s Crisis. Deutsche Welle. 5 October 2012. URL: https://www.dw.com/en/tuaregs-ties-with-libya-linked-to-malis-crisis/a-15937336.
How oil exploration is adding to Mali’s security woes. The Conversation. 22 October 2017. URL: https://theconversation.com/how-oil-exploration-is-adding-to-malis-security-woes-85268.
King I. How France Failed Mali: the End of Operation Barkhane. Harvard International Review. 30 January 2023. URL: https://hir.harvard.edu/how-france-failed-mali-the-end-of-operation-barkhane/.
D’Amato S., Baldaro E. Counter-Terrorism in the Sahel: Increased Instability and Political Tensions. ICCT. 7 July 2022. URL: https://www.icct.nl/publication/counter-terrorism-sahel-increased-instability-and-political-tensions#:~:text=The%20two%20main%20'jihadist'%20coalitions,the%20control%20of%20different%20areas%2C.
Timeline: Nine years of French troops in Mali. Al Jazeera. 17 February 2022. URL: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/2/17/timeline-what-led-france-to-withdraw-its-troops-from-mali.
Mapping Armed Groups in Mali and the Sahel – Operation Barkhane. European Council on Foreign Relations. URL: https://www.ecfr.eu/special/sahel_mapping/operation_barkhane.
Doxsee C., Thompson J., Harris M. The End of Operation Barkhane and the Future of Counterterrorism in Mali. Center for Strategic and International Studies. 2 March 2022. URL: https://www.csis.org/analysis/end-operation-barkhane-and-future-counterterrorism-mali.
Bonny A. Mali requests France immediately withdraw Barkhane, Takuba forces. Anadolu Agency. 19 February 2022. URL: https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/mali-requests-france-immediately-withdraw-barkhane-takuba-forces/2506917.
Mali expels French envoy over remarks by foreign minister. The Guardian. 31 January 2022. URL: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jan/31/mali-expels-french-envoy-ambassador-joel-grey.
Chad leader Deby, key Western ally, killed in battle -army. Reuters. 20 April 2021. URL: https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/chad-leader-idriss-deby-western-ally-against-militants-killed-battle-son-takes-2021-04-20/.
Group of Five for the Sahel Joint Force. Security Council Report. 29 May 2020. URL: https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/monthly-forecast/2020-06/group-of-five-for-the-sahel-joint-force-2.php.
Douce S. Mali’s departure from the G5 Sahel de facto signs the organization's death warrant. Le Monde. 18 May 2022. URL: https://www.lemonde.fr/en/international/article/2022/05/18/mali-s-departure-from-the-g5-sahel-signs-de-facto-the-organization-s-death-warrant_5983848_4.html.
EU TRAINING Mission Mali (EUTM Mali). URL: https://eutmmali.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/20210715_Fact-Sheet-EUTM-Mali-1.pdf.
Personnel. MINUSMA. URL: https://minusma.unmissions.org/en/personnel.
Ivory Coast to pull out of UN peacekeeping mission in Mali after soldiers detained. France24. 15 November 2022. URL: https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20221115-%F0%9F%94%B4-ivory-coast-to-pull-out-of-un-peacekeeping-mission-in-mali.
Lode K. Mali’s peace process: Context, analysis and evaluation. Accord, 13, December 2002. URL: https://www.c-r.org/accord/public-participation/malis-peace-process-context-analysis-and-evaluation.
Mali’s Algiers Peace Agreement, Five Years On: An Uneasy Calm. OCHA. 24 June 2020. URL: https://reliefweb.int/report/mali/mali-s-algiers-peace-agreement-five-years-uneasy-calm.
Mali receives six more military aircraft from Russia. Le Monde. 10 August 2022. URL: https://www.lemonde.fr/en/le-monde-africa/article/2022/08/10/mali-receives-six-more-warplanes-from-russia-in-a-historic-ceremony_5993097_124.html.
Mali’s junta gets warplanes, drones from Russia, Turkey. Al-Arabiya News. 16 March 2023. URL: https://english.alarabiya.net/News/world/2023/03/16/Mali-s-junta-gets-warplanes-drones-from-Russia-Turkey.
Thompson J., Doxsee C., Bermudez Jr. J. S. Tracking the Arrival of Russia’s Wagner Group in Mali. Center for Strategic and International Studies. 2 February 2022. URL: https://www.csis.org/analysis/tracking-arrival-russias-wagner-group-mali.
Signature entre le G5 Sahel et la présidence de l’industrie de Défense turque d’un contrat de soutien à la Force Conjointe. G5 Sahel. 19 août 2021. URL: https://www.g5sahel.org/signature-entre-le-g5-sahel-et-la-presidence-de-lindustrie-de-defense-turque-dun-contrat-de-soutien-a-la-force-conjointe/.
Özkan M., Kanté A. West Africa and Turkey forge new security relations. Institute for Security Studies. 31 March 2022. URL: https://issafrica.org/iss-today/west-africa-and-turkey-forge-new-security-relations.
